Ancient religious texts and Ethiopian Orthodox Church

The Bible and Holy Scriptures in the Tewahido Tradition

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church (EOTC) teaches that the Holy Scriptures are the inspired Word of God, received through the Holy Spirit and handed down through the Apostles, the Prophets, and the Church Fathers. The Church recognises two inseparable pillars of divine revelation: Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition (Apostolic Tradition). Neither stands alone — the Scriptures are interpreted within the living Tradition of the Church, and the Tradition is grounded in the testimony of Scripture.

The word "Bible" derives from the Greek Biblion, meaning "book." In Ge'ez, the language of the Ethiopian Church, the Bible is called መጽሐፍ ቅዱስ (Metshafe Qidus) — "the Holy Book." The Ethiopian canon is the broadest of any Christian church in the world, preserving ancient texts that were lost or excluded from Western Christianity centuries ago.

Key fact: The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church has preserved the world's only complete copies of the Book of Enoch and the Book of Jubilees in their original Ge'ez language — scriptures quoted by the New Testament but excluded from all other Christian canons.

The Canon of the Ethiopic Bible: 81 Books

The EOTC recognises a Narrow Canon of 81 books — 46 books in the Old Testament and 35 books in the New Testament. Some Ethiopian traditions also acknowledge a Broader Canon of up to 88 books, which includes additional liturgical and ecclesiastical texts considered divinely inspired by the Church.

Old Testament: 46 Books

The Ethiopian Old Testament includes all 39 books of the Protestant canon, the 7 deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, and additional books unique to the Ethiopian tradition. The complete list, in the traditional Ethiopian order:

The Octateuch (Books of Moses and the Historical Books)

  1. Genesis — The book of creation, the Patriarchs, and the covenant
  2. Exodus — The liberation from Egypt and the giving of the Law
  3. Leviticus — The priestly laws and ritual purity
  4. Numbers — The census and the journey through the wilderness
  5. Deuteronomy — Moses' final discourses and the renewal of the covenant
  6. Joshua — The conquest and settlement of Canaan
  7. Judges — Israel under the Judges from Othniel to Samson
  8. Ruth — The story of Ruth the Moabitess, ancestor of David

The Books of Kings and Chronicles

  1. 1 Samuel (1 Kingdoms) — Samuel, Saul, and the early reign of David
  2. 2 Samuel (2 Kingdoms) — The reign of King David
  3. 1 Kings (3 Kingdoms) — Solomon and the divided Kingdom
  4. 2 Kings (4 Kingdoms) — The fall of Israel and Judah
  5. 1 Chronicles — The genealogies and the reign of David
  6. 2 Chronicles — Solomon through the exile
  7. Ezra — The return from Babylon and the rebuilding of the Temple
  8. Nehemiah — The rebuilding of Jerusalem's walls

The Deuterocanonical Historical Books

  1. Tobit (Tobias) — The story of the righteous Tobit and the angel Raphael
  2. Judith — Judith's courage in delivering Israel from Holofernes
  3. Esther — Esther saves the Jewish people from Haman (including Greek additions)
  4. 1 Maccabees — The Maccabean revolt and Jewish independence
  5. 2 Maccabees — A theological account of the Maccabean period

The Meqabyan — Uniquely Ethiopian

  1. 1 Meqabyan — Ethiopian account of holy warriors defending the faith, distinct from 1 Maccabees
  2. 2 Meqabyan — Continuation of the Ethiopian Maccabean narrative
  3. 3 Meqabyan — The third volume, containing theological teachings of the Ethiopian tradition

The three books of Meqabyan (sometimes spelled Maqabis) are not related to the Greek Maccabees books of the Catholic canon. They are entirely Ethiopian compositions, preserved only in Ge'ez, recounting the struggles of righteous men who maintained their faith against persecution — a uniquely African expression of the Maccabean spirit.

The Wisdom Books

  1. Job — The suffering of the righteous Job and the mystery of divine justice
  2. Psalms (Dawit) — The 150 Psalms of David, the foundation of Ethiopian hymnody
  3. Proverbs — Solomonic wisdom for daily life
  4. Ecclesiastes — The vanity of earthly things and the fear of God
  5. Song of Songs (Song of Solomon) — The sacred love poetry of Solomon
  6. Wisdom of Solomon — Hellenistic Jewish wisdom attributed to Solomon
  7. Sirach (Ecclesiasticus / Ben Sira) — Practical wisdom from Joshua ben Sira

The Prophets

  1. Isaiah — Prophecies of the Messiah and the restoration of Israel
  2. Jeremiah — The weeping prophet and the New Covenant
  3. Lamentations — Jeremiah's lament over the destruction of Jerusalem
  4. Baruch — Including the Letter of Jeremiah (Chapter 6)
  5. Ezekiel — Visions of the divine chariot and the restoration of the Temple
  6. Daniel — Including the Greek additions: Prayer of Azariah, Song of the Three Young Men, Susanna, and Bel and the Dragon

The Twelve Minor Prophets

  1. Hosea
  2. Amos
  3. Micah
  4. Joel
  5. Obadiah
  6. Jonah
  7. Nahum
  8. Habakkuk
  9. Zephaniah
  10. Haggai
  11. Zechariah
  12. Malachi

Total Old Testament: 46 books

New Testament: 35 Books

The Ethiopian New Testament expands the standard 27-book canon by 8 additional books that the EOTC recognises as apostolic and divinely inspired. These include four major sections of the Sinodos, two sections of the Book of the Covenant (Meshafe Kidan), and the Clement.

The Gospels

  1. Matthew
  2. Mark
  3. Luke
  4. John

The Acts and Catholic Epistles

  1. Acts of the Apostles
  2. Romans
  3. 1 Corinthians
  4. 2 Corinthians
  5. Galatians
  6. Ephesians
  7. Philippians
  8. Colossians
  9. 1 Thessalonians
  10. 2 Thessalonians
  11. 1 Timothy
  12. 2 Timothy
  13. Titus
  14. Philemon
  15. Hebrews
  16. James
  17. 1 Peter
  18. 2 Peter
  19. 1 John
  20. 2 John
  21. 3 John
  22. Jude
  23. Revelation (Apocalypse of John)

The Four Books of Sinodos — Additional NT Books

  1. Sinodos Part 1 — Apostolic canons and church governance rules
  2. Sinodos Part 2 — Liturgical ordinances and regulations for the clergy
  3. Sinodos Part 3 — Instructions on baptism, Eucharist, and church order
  4. Sinodos Part 4 — Rules regarding fasting, prayer, and the Christian life

Additional Apostolic Books

  1. Meshafe Kidan Part 1 (Book of the Covenant I) — The teachings of Christ to His Apostles after the Resurrection
  2. Meshafe Kidan Part 2 (Book of the Covenant II) — Continuation of post-Resurrection apostolic instruction
  3. Clement (Qalementos) — Attributed to St. Clement of Rome; apostolic teaching and church order
  4. Didascalia (Didesqelya) — The "Teaching of the Apostles," a comprehensive church order document

Total New Testament: 35 books
Total Canon: 81 books

The Ethiopian Church's inclusion of the Sinodos, Meshafe Kidan, Clement, and Didascalia in the scriptural canon reflects its apostolic foundation: these texts were regarded as direct transmissions of apostolic teaching, carrying the same divine authority as the Epistles.

Books Unique to the Ethiopian Canon

The Book of Enoch (1 Enoch) — መጽሐፈ ሄኖክ

The Book of Enoch is one of the most significant texts in all of ancient religious literature. Written in the name of Enoch, the great-grandfather of Noah, it describes his heavenly visions, the fall of the Watchers (angels who took human wives), the Nephilim, the coming judgment, and the cosmic order of creation. The text is structured into five major sections:

The New Testament explicitly quotes the Book of Enoch in Jude 1:14–15. The Dead Sea Scrolls (discovered 1947) included Aramaic fragments of 1 Enoch, confirming it was widely used in ancient Jewish communities. Ethiopia alone preserved the complete text in its original Ge'ez language. All modern scholarly translations of 1 Enoch depend on Ethiopian manuscripts.

The Book of Jubilees — መጽሐፈ ኩፋሌ

Called "Lesser Genesis" by early Christian writers, the Book of Jubilees retells the narratives of Genesis and the opening chapters of Exodus, organizing all of history into periods of 49 years (Jubilees). Written from the perspective of an angel dictating to Moses on Mount Sinai, it provides expanded accounts of:

Like Enoch, Jubilees was found among the Dead Sea Scrolls in multiple copies, confirming its central place in early Jewish and Christian thought. Only the Ethiopian Church preserved the complete text. The Ethiopian solar calendar used by the Church is directly related to the solar reckoning system described in Jubilees and the Astronomical Book of Enoch.

The Ascension of Isaiah — ዕርገተ ኢሳይያስ

The Ascension of Isaiah is a composite Jewish-Christian apocalyptic text attributed to the Prophet Isaiah. The Ethiopian canon includes it as part of the scriptural heritage. The text consists of two main parts:

The text is referenced in Hebrews 11:37 ("they were sawn in two"), and early Church Fathers such as Origen cited it. Only Ethiopia preserved the complete version of this ancient prophetic vision.

Canon Law: The Sinodos

The Sinodos (ሲኖዶስ) is the most important canonical collection of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church. The word derives from the Greek synodos (assembly, council). It is considered apostolic in origin — the authoritative legislation of the Church transmitted from the Apostles through the Holy Spirit.

The Sinodos is divided into eight books, each addressing a specific domain of church life and governance:

  1. Sinodos Book 1 — The Apostolic Canons: 85 canons governing the election of bishops, the conduct of clergy, and the administration of the sacraments. Attributed to the Apostles and compiled at the Council of Jerusalem.
  2. Sinodos Book 2 — Regulations on the Eucharist (Qiddase), baptism (Tsemema), and the proper form of Sunday worship. Includes instructions for deacons, presbyters, and bishops during liturgical celebrations.
  3. Sinodos Book 3 — Rules concerning widows, orphans, virgins consecrated to God, and the Church's social responsibilities. Regulations for the order of worship and the treatment of the poor.
  4. Sinodos Book 4 — Canons on fasting periods, feast days, the weekly Sabbath, the hours of prayer, and the conduct expected of the faithful in daily life. Contains rules about marriage, divorce, and cleanliness.
  5. Sinodos Book 5 — Canons on repentance, penance, and reconciliation. The proper procedures for excommunication, readmission of sinners, and the role of the confessor priest.
  6. Sinodos Book 6 — Regulations for monks, nuns, and the monastic life. The vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience as understood in the Ethiopian tradition. Instructions for abbots and mothers superior.
  7. Sinodos Book 7 — Canons on doctrinal matters, the condemnation of heresies, and the authority of the Ecumenical Councils. Includes the canons of Nicaea (325 AD), Constantinople (381 AD), Ephesus (431 AD), and other councils recognised by the EOTC.
  8. Sinodos Book 8 — Additional apostolic constitutions and regulations not fitting the earlier categories. Contains prayers, blessings, and instructions for special occasions in the liturgical year.

The Didascalia — ዲዳስቀልያ

The Didascalia Apostolorum (ዲዳስቀልያ — Didesqelya in Ge'ez) means "The Teaching of the Apostles." It is one of the earliest church order documents, believed to originate in Syria in the early 3rd century AD but received and preserved in the Ethiopian Church as apostolic scripture.

The Didascalia addresses:

The Didascalia forms a companion to the Sinodos, together comprising the full body of canonical law that governs the life of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church.

The Meshafe Kidan — Book of the Covenant

The Meshafe Kidan (መጽሐፈ ኪዳን — Book of the Covenant) is the record of Christ's post-Resurrection teachings to His Apostles over the forty days before His Ascension. The Ethiopian Church holds this as part of the scriptural canon alongside the canonical Gospels. It consists of two parts:

Theological and Patristic Books of the EOTC

Beyond the 81-book canon, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church maintains a vast library of theological and patristic texts that form the intellectual and spiritual backbone of the tradition. These are not considered canonical scripture but are regarded as authoritative guides to faith and practice.

Haymanot Abew — ሃይማኖተ አበው (Faith of the Fathers)

The Haymanot Abew is one of the most important theological collections in Ethiopian Christianity. It is a compilation of writings from the Greek and Oriental Church Fathers, translated into Ge'ez, covering Christology, Mariology, soteriology, and the interpretation of Scripture. Key fathers included are Athanasius of Alexandria, Cyril of Alexandria, John Chrysostom, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory the Theologian, Ephrem the Syrian, and many others. It is used extensively in Ethiopian theological education (in the Qine Schools and the higher Sewa schools).

Fetha Negest — ፍትሐ ነገሥት (Law of the Kings)

The Fetha Negest (also spelled Fitha Negest) is the traditional legal code of the Ethiopian Church and state. Compiled in Arabic by Coptic Christian jurist Ibn al-Assal in the 13th century and translated into Ge'ez in the 15th century, it contains civil and ecclesiastical law drawn from Scripture, the Apostolic Canons, the Church Fathers, and Byzantine Roman law. It served as Ethiopia's constitution until 1931, when Emperor Haile Selassie introduced a modern constitution.

Qerlos — ቄርሎስ

The Qerlos is the collected Christological writings of St. Cyril of Alexandria (376–444 AD). In the EOTC, it is the primary reference on the doctrine of the one nature of Christ — the Tewahido (unity) that gives the Church its name. The Ethiopian word Tewahido means "united" or "made one," referring to the perfect union of divinity and humanity in Christ without mixture, confusion, or separation — the Oriental Orthodox (miaphysite) Christology.

Liturgical Books of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church

The liturgical life of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church is sustained by a rich body of books used in daily, weekly, and annual worship. These are not part of the scriptural canon but are considered sacred and authoritative for liturgical practice.

The Liturgies (Anaphoras)

The EOTC has the richest collection of Eucharistic liturgies (Anaphoras / Qiddase) of any Christian church — 14 Anaphoras in regular use:

Deggua — ድጓ (The Antiphonary of St. Yared)

The Deggua is the foundational hymn book of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, composed in the 6th century by the great Ethiopian hymnologist St. Yared (505–571 AD). St. Yared is credited with creating a unique system of musical notation (the Ethiopian neumes system) and composing hymns in three melodic modes:

The Deggua organizes hymns for every day of the liturgical year and is considered one of the great achievements of African Christian culture. Ethiopian tradition holds that St. Yared composed his hymns under divine inspiration, with birds singing to him in the garden and the Emperor Gebra Maskel himself present to witness.

Tsome Deggua — ፆሜ ድጓ (Lenten Antiphonary)

A specialized liturgical book containing hymns specifically for the Great Lent (Hudade / Abiy Tsom), the 55-day fasting period before Ethiopian Easter (Fasika). It follows the same Yaredic system as the Deggua but focuses entirely on penitential and Passion-tide themes.

Meraf — መዓርፍ (The Book of Responses)

A liturgical book containing the responses, antiphons, and versicles used during the Daily Office (the seven canonical hours of prayer). It is used by deacons and chanters throughout the cycle of daily worship.

Ziq — ዚቅ (Hymns of the Saints)

A collection of hymns dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the Angels, and the Saints. Distinct from the Deggua, the Ziq follows a monthly cycle corresponding to the feast days of individual saints in the Ethiopian Synaxarium.

Senkessar — ስንክሳር (The Synaxarium)

The Senkessar is the Ethiopian version of the Synaxarium (Menologion) — a hagiographic collection that assigns the life story of one or more saints to each day of the Ethiopian calendar year. It is read aloud in church after the Gospels at every morning liturgy, making it one of the most-heard books in the tradition. The Ethiopian Synaxarium is the largest in the Christian world, including saints unique to Africa.

Historical and Ecclesiastical Books

Kebre Negest — ክብረ ነገሥት (Glory of Kings)

The Kebre Negest is Ethiopia's national epic and theological charter, written in the 14th century in Ge'ez. It tells the story of the Queen of Sheba (Makeda), her journey to meet King Solomon, the birth of their son Menelik I, and how Menelik brought the Ark of the Covenant to Ethiopia. The text establishes Ethiopia's claim as the new Zion, the chosen nation of God, and the rightful custodian of the Ark (believed to rest in Axum to this day). It has profoundly shaped Ethiopian national identity, the Rastafari faith, and the image of Ethiopia in global culture.

Kebra Negast Liturgical Additions

Connected to the Kebre Negest is a body of liturgical prayers and hymns celebrating the role of Zion (the Ark) in Ethiopian theology, used at the feast of Axum Zion (November 30) and other major celebrations.

Metshafe Lidat — መጽሐፈ ልደት (Book of the Nativity)

A liturgical and theological text for the celebration of the Nativity of Christ (Genna — Ethiopian Christmas, celebrated on Tahsas 29 / January 7). It contains hymns, readings, and theological reflections on the Incarnation.

Te'ezaz — ትዕዛዝ (Commandments / Church Orders)

A collection of church orders and episcopal letters from patriarchs and church councils, providing supplementary guidance on matters not covered by the Sinodos or Didascalia. It addresses issues such as relations with non-Christians, the conduct of pilgrims, and rules for church construction.

Grammar and Linguistic Books of the Ge'ez Tradition

The transmission of scripture and liturgy in the Ethiopian Church required a sophisticated tradition of linguistic scholarship. Several books developed in this tradition:

Sawasew — ሰዋስዉ (Grammar of Ge'ez)

The traditional Ge'ez grammar, used in the higher schools of the Ethiopian Church to train priests, deacons, and scholars. Mastery of Ge'ez is required for understanding the liturgy, the Deggua, and the theological texts of the tradition.

Qine — ቅኔ (Sacred Poetry)

The Qine tradition is a sophisticated form of sacred poetry in Ge'ez, using two layers of meaning simultaneously — the wax (outer/surface meaning) and the gold (hidden theological meaning). Qine composition is considered the highest intellectual achievement in traditional Ethiopian education. The Qine schools of Lalibela, Gondar, and Wollo are the centers of this learning. A skilled poet can compose Qine spontaneously in the church during festivals.

Reading the Ethiopian Bible Today

The Ethiopian Bible was originally written in Ge'ez — the Classical Ethiopic language used as the liturgical language of the Church for over 1,700 years. Most Ethiopians today read the Bible in Amharic (the modern national language of Ethiopia) or Tigrinya/Tigrigna (spoken in Tigray and Eritrea). Modern translations also exist in Oromo, Somali, and other Ethiopian languages.

The Bible Ethiopian app provides the complete 81-book canon in both Amharic and English on iOS, with full offline access. The Amharic Bible 81 Books app offers the complete Amharic text. The Book of Enoch app provides the complete Enochian text with commentary.

Did you know? The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church is the only Christian church in the world that has maintained an unbroken fasting tradition of over 200 days per year — one of the most rigorous in Christendom. The Geez Calendar app tracks all Ethiopian fasting periods and Orthodox feast days.

Sources and Further Reading

This article draws on authoritative sources including: